"A thesis submitted to Macquarie University in fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Business and Economics"

"July 2014"

Thesis by publication.

Bibliography: pages 214-236.

Chapter 1. Overview of the thesis  – Chapter 2. Paper 1. Developing and validating a measure of stakeholder culture for the not-for-profit sector  – Chapter 3. Paper 2. Who and what really count? An examination of stakeholder attributes and salience in the not-for-profit sector  – Chapter 4. Paper 3.Stakeholder characteristics and not-for-profit accountability mechanisms  – Chapter 5. Summary and conclusions.

In recent decades, not-for-profit (NFP) accountability has become an increasingly important research area in Australia and worldwide due to the sector’s growing presence in the economic and social landscape. In response to ongoing significant reforms in the sector in Australia and limited knowledge in the area, this thesis examines stakeholder accountability in the Australian NFP sector. The data for the thesis were collected via a mail survey of the top management of 621 NFP organizations (NFPs) across Australia. The thesis is by publication format and comprises three inter-related but distinct papers.

The first paper constructs and validates a scale for Jones et al.’s (2007) stakeholder culture in the NFP context. Jones et al.’s (2007) theoretical typology of stakeholder culture, representing the beliefs, values and practices that an organization exhibits toward stakeholders, is particularly relevant for NFPs. However, a scale to measure the construct is absent in the literature. A stakeholder culture scale is constructed following an extensive literature review and consultations with academics and NFP personnel. Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) were conducted to assess the internal structure and psychometric properties of the scale. The results establish the scale’s reliability and validity.

The second paper applies and tests Mitchell et al.’s (1997) stakeholder salience framework in the NFP context. The study identifies salient stakeholders in NFPs and examines the influence of three stakeholder attributes, namely, power, moral legitimacy and urgency, on stakeholder salience. The study also tests the moderating effects of top management’s values and stakeholder culture (as constructed in the first paper) on the relation between the stakeholder attributes and stakeholder salience. The results support the application of Mitchell et al.’s (1997) stakeholder salience framework in the NFP context and support Jones et al.’s (2007) propositions concerning the moderating role of stakeholder culture on the stakeholder attributes and salience relation.

The third paper examines NFPs’ use of accountability mechanisms and investigates the association between stakeholder characteristics (i.e., stakeholder power and stakeholder salience as examined in the second paper) and NFPs’ use of accountability mechanisms. The results indicate that…

Theoretical thesis.

Bibliography: pages 217-247.

Chapter One. Introduction  – Chapter Two. Literature review  – Chapter Three. Paper one - Two stimuli in accrual accounting adoption in Indonesia  – Chapter Four. Paper two - The role of international organisations in accrual accounting adoption in Indonesia : is it coercive influence?  – Chapter Five. Paper Three - Analysis of alignment between public sector reforms in Indonesia and new public management  – Chapter Six. Conclusion, implications and limitations.

This research is inspired by the compexities of the adoption of accrual accounting, which have been widely explored in public sector accounting literature. This research intends to explore the adoption of accrual accounting in the Indonesian public sector. Using case-based research the research is underpinned by theory to interpret the process of accrual accounting adoption in Indonesia and adopts qualitative research methods, including in-depth interviews with senior regulators of public sector reform in Indonesia and extensive reviews of documents and archives, to construct a historical analysis of public sector accounting in Indonesia.

Paper one identifies events that stimulated the adoption of accrual accounting in Indonesia. In-depth interviews were conducted with senior accountants involved in setting the regulations of these public sector reforms in order to gain insight into the motivations for adoption and the decision-making process of implementation. These interviews reveal two milestones in the process of public sector accounting reform in Indonesia. The first was the ratification of the Law of State Finance No. 17/2003, in which there was a stipulation that governments (both central and local governments) should implement accrual accounting in 2008. Interviewees stated that this implementation of accrual accounting was motivated by a desire to avoid sanctions from the International Monetary Fund (IMF). The Government of Indonesia expected the IMF to provide bailout funds to restore the Indonesian economy, which had been devastated by the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis. The second milestone was a written plea from the Supreme Audit Institution (SAI). in 2008. This letter pleaded for the Government of Indonesia to fulfil the stipulation of the Law of State Finance No. 17/2003. In the same year, the Government of Indonesia and the Parliament agreed to implement accrual accounting, but to delay the implementation to 2015. This delay was designed to avoid allegations of unconstitutional behaviour, when, in 2008 and 2009, the Government of Indonesia was unable to follow the stipulation of the State Finance Law 17/2003. Paper one applies a new institutional theory perspective to examine whether these decisions were efforts aimed at seeking legitimacy.

Paper two aimed to explain to what extent the IMF, the World Bank and other aid donors influenced accrual accounting adoption in Indonesia. This study used in-depth interviews with members of the Board of the Indonesian Government Accounting…

Empirical thesis.

Bibliography: pages178-187.

This thesis consists of three self-contained research papers in the areas of cash flow forecasts, cash flow asymmetry and accounting conservatism. The first paper (in Chapter Two) examines the factors affecting the issuance, accuracy and usefulness of analysts’ cash flow forecasts (CFFs) in Australia. The Australian market is selected due to the dominance of mining firms on the Australian Securities Exchange, the adoption of International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) and the prevalence of the direct method to prepare cash flow statements among Australian firms. Given the economic importance of the mining industry in Australia, the results show that analysts are likely to provide CFFs to mining firms with poor financial health and high default risk because investors have particular concerns about mining firms’ distress risk. In contrast, analysts’ provision of CFFs increases with non-mining firms which remain in sound financial health. The determinants of the issuance and accuracy of analysts’ CFFs also differ in the periods before and after the adoption of IFRS. The results add new evidence on the effect of the adoption of IFRS on analysts’ cash flow forecasting behaviours. In addition, I find that analysts’ CFFs are substantially more accurate than the forecasts generated from time-series models and analysts’ earnings forecast accuracy is improved with the presence of CFFs. The findings contribute to the debate on the merits of the presentation of cash flow statements using the direct method and will be welcomed by the Australian Accounting Standard Board, one of few accounting standard setters around the world which had previously required and now encourages cash flow statements to be presented using the direct method.

Asymmetric behaviour of operating cash flows (CFO) refers to the extent to which cash flows reflect bad news in a timelier manner than good news. It was first documented in Basu (1997) along with the well-known asymmetric behaviour of earnings. Although both asymmetries are pervasive, the former has received far less attention. The second paper (in Chapter Three) of the thesis uncovers the determinants that drive CFO asymmetry. It proposes and examines two new explanations for CFO asymmetry based on sticky cost behaviours and conservatism demands. The results show that cost stickiness and the equity contracting, litigation and taxation demands for conservatism, in addition to firm life cycle, drive CFO asymmetry. However, none of these factors dominates the others, and their combination cannot fully explain the degree of asymmetric timeliness in CFO. Overall, the results provide the first insights regarding CFO asymmetric timeliness.

Given that directors and managers do not always act in shareholders’ interests (Adams & Ferreira, 2007; Laux, 2008; Taylor, 2010), the Securities Class Action Litigation in the United States has been perceived to function as a potentially useful mechanism to discipline opportunistic managers and…

Theoretical thesis.

Bibliography: 255-339.

1. Introduction and aims  – 2. Theoretical approach and methodology  – 3. New institutional economics theory  – 4. Institutional formation of the .cn ccTLD (1990-1997) – legal transplantation  – 5. The first institutional change in 2002 – legal localisation  – 6. The second institutional change in 2004 – legal characterisation  – 7. Conclusion  – Bibliography.

The Domain Name System (DNS) operates at the literal root of the Internet. Governments can control cyberspace communications through controlling the DNS and countries can claim cyberspace sovereignty via their administration of country-code Top-Level Domains (ccTLDs). In order to understand how China governs the Internet and its cyberspace, it is necessary to know how Chinese governments regulate the DNS. Under the theoretical framework of New Institutional Economics theory, combining qualitative analysis, historical research, case studies, and triangulation research, this dissertation analyses the institutional formation and institutional change process for the .cn ccTLD administrative regulations. It also explores how Chinese governments’ governance practices are affected and how the constraints of politics, law, economics and technology improve and restrain the institutional formation and change of the .cn ccTLD administrative regulations. The structure of the thesis includes institutional transplantation, institutional localization and institutional specialization.

This dissertation proposes and tests three key arguments: (1) within the context of the DNS and characterized with connectivity and hierarchy, and domain name administrative regulations with a hierarchic administrative mode, domain name technological path dependency led to China’s domain name administrative regulation’s path dependency; (2) the institutional change of the Administrative Measures on China’s Domain Names resulted from the synthesis of endogenous and exogenous institutional change factors; (3) Chinese governments sometimes supply or tolerate inefficient institutional arrangements so as to achieve other higher goals. Overall, this dissertation provides evidence that the Chinese governments tolerate, develop, and/or promote institutions and technologies which might increase the quality of citizens’ lives and which might develop the domestic economy, but constrain, supervise, or/and forbid institutions and technologies perceived to risk causing damage to China’s stability and unity.

1 online resource (x, 340 pages) 1 colour map

Empirical thesis.

Bibliography: pages 222-244.

Chapter 1. Overview of the thesis  – Chapter 2. (Paper 1) The changing face of the auditor’s report : implications for suppliers and users of financial statements  – Chapter 3. (Paper 2) The effects of preference for quantitative information and utilisation of quantitative versus qualitative information on auditors’ materiality judgements  – Chapter 4. (Paper 3) The impact of client pressure and client’s financial condition on auditors’ judgements to report KAMs in the auditor’s report  – Chapter 5. (Paper 4) The impact of director liability regime, national culture and the quality of the audit environment and enforcement of accounting regulations on audit fees  – Chapter 6. Conclusions and implications  – Bibliography  – Appendices.

The auditing profession has experienced significant transformations in the past fifteen years, in efforts to boost public confidence. In particular, auditing standards and corporate law have undergone significant changes. These reforms and changes were driven by large-scale corporate failures, financial scandals and dwindling public confidence in the craft of external assurance.

The aim of this thesis is to identify and examine empirically the impact of various factors that may impede the implementation of the numerous reforms in auditing standards and legislations. Specifically, this thesis has undertaken the following four research projects in the domain of audit regulations and auditor judgements: (1) to critically analyse the current audit report reforms and investigate the implications of the changes for the suppliers and users of the financial reports; (2) to examine the factors that affect the materiality judgements of auditors and identify interventions that could mitigate their effects; (3) to examine the factors that influence auditors’ judgements to present key audit matters in an auditor’s reports; and (4) to investigate the extent and causes of differences in audit fees between companies across countries.

This thesis employs both qualitative and quantitative research methods to examine the various factors affecting the adoption of new auditing standards and the impact of differences in legislation across countries on audit fees. The findings of this thesis provide evidence that reforms in auditing standards have significant implications for stakeholders such as the users of financial statements and the accounting firms who have to implement the changes. Furthermore, various factors such as personality traits of accountants, pressures from their clients and characteristics of the client have significant effect on the decision-making process and judgements of accountants. Finally, the findings show that differences in legal liability laws, national culture and the quality of audit environment and enforcement of accounting regulations have an impact on audit fees that auditors charge across countries. These findings have important implications for various stakeholders such as the auditing standard-setters and…

Thesis by publication.

Bibliography: pages 181-200.

Chapter One. Introduction  – Chapter Two. Literature review  – Chapter Three. Data collection and analysis  – Chapter Four. Paper one  – Chapter Five. Paper two  – Chapter Six. Paper three  – Chapter Seven. Conclusion  – Appendices  – References.

This thesis examines the use of specific environmental management practices by Australian organisations, including Environmental Management Systems (EMSs) and Environmental Management Accounting (EMA), operationalised in respect to the use of physical and monetary components and Environmental Activity Management as a specific tool of EMA. In addition, the thesis investigates the influence of contingency factors on the use of these practices, and the association between the extent of use of such practices and environmental performance. Data were collected by mail survey questionnaire from a random sample of 208 senior managers in Australian organisations across different industries.

The thesis adopts the ‘thesis by publication’ format and consists of three academic papers. Paper One examines the influence of institutional pressures (coercive, mimetic and normative) on the comprehensiveness of EMSs, and the impact of EMS comprehensiveness on environmental performance. The findings indicate that both coercive and normative pressures influence the comprehensiveness of EMSs. In addition, organisations with more comprehensive EMSs were found to experience higher levels of all four dimensions of environmental performance (resource usage, regulatory compliance, productivity, and stakeholder interaction).

1 online resource (xii, 200 pages) diagrams

Theoretical thesis.

Bibliography: pages 201-226.

Chapter One: Introduction  – Chapter Two: Literature review  – Chapter Three: Paper one  – Chapter Four: Paper two  – Chapter Five: Paper three  – Chapter Six: Conclusion

Doing business in a responsible, ethical and more transparent manner is essential in order to remain competitive in the current global environment and to ensure the long-term survival of organisations. The traditional concept of profit maximisation or creating value for shareholders has been called into question by the social and environmental impacts of organisations. Organisations are under increasing pressure from their stakeholders to consider the impacts oftheir commercial and industrial activities. By ignoring stakeholder pressure, organisations may face penalties and consumer boycotts or worse, in having their licence to operate cancelled. In response to increased stakeholder pressure, organisations practise corporate social responsibility (CSR) to balance their obligations to be socially responsible, environmentally sustainable and economically competitive. However, achieving these goals simultaneously is often viewed as contradictory.

While the prior literature on CSR mostly focuses on its ethical aspects or the relationship between CSR and performance, little is known about why and how CSR diffuses, the association between strategy and CSR, and the mediating role of management control systems (MCS) on adoption and implementation of CSR. Therefore, the aim of this study is to make an original and significant contribution by addressing these empirical gaps in the exiting literature. The format of this thesis is ‘thesis by publication’ consisting of three separate but interrelated comprehensive research papers.

The purpose of paper one is to explore the determinants of CSR, by addressing the following two research questions. (i) Why and how was CSR diffused within the case organisation operating in a developing country? (ii) What factors influenced the diffusion of CSR within the case organisation? To address these research questions, the study draws on the diffusion of innovations theory (Rogers, 1995, 2003) and Abrahamson’s (1991) theoretical perspectives. Data were collected from a Nepalese airline company through semi-structured interviews and relevant documents to examine CSR diffusion. The findings of this study suggest that perceived benefit facilitates the diffusion of CSR within the organisation. The adoption of CSR is also seen as a proactive strategy to avoid any future risk associated with an organisation’s environmental impact. The findings reveal that organisations’ strategy, cultural values and beliefs, and top management support are important predictors of the adoption of CSR. The empirical findings of this study provide valuable insights into how CSR can enhance organisations’ performance if CSR is used in a strategic way. This study extends the diffusion of innovations theory by focusing on both the initial and post-adoption process (primary and secondary…

Empirical thesis.

Bibliography: pages 175-189

Chapter 1. Overview of the dissertation  – Chapter 2. Sceptical judgments and self-constural  – Chapter 3. The influence of partners 'views on Chinese auditors' judgments of professional scepticism  – Chapter 4. The importance of peer pressure relative to trait scepticism in influencing Chinese auditors' judgment of professional scepticism - Chapter 5. Conclusions.

Professional scepticism (PS) has been widely recognised as the cornerstone of audit quality and the foundation of the profession, and remains one of the most important and underexplored topics in auditing. This dissertation makes theoretical, methodological and empirical contributions to the literature on PS by examining various antecedents to auditors’ sceptical judgments in the Chinese context. China is selected for examination because there have been calls for studies to provide richer and deeper understanding of auditors’ judgment and decision making (JDM) beyond Anglo-American cultural settings. The Chinese core cultural values, which emphasise collectivism, interdependence and harmony within hierarchy, substantially differ from the individualist and independent cultural values dominant in Anglo-American countries. Specifically, the aim of this dissertation is to provide empirical evidence on various antecedents to Chinese auditors’ sceptical judgments by taking into account relevant cultural values and within cultural differences in individual auditors’ personality. This aim is attained by three papers comprising the dissertation, which empirically examine the influence of various antecedent factors on Chinese auditors’ sceptical judgments, namely self-construal, partners’ views, and peer pressure respectively.

The first paper provides empirical evidence on the influence of a relevant personality variable, namely, self-construal on sceptical judgments. Self-construal has been selected because this variable captures complex cognitive processes experienced by individuals and is fundamental in explaining individual differences at both cultural and personality levels. Self-construal is broadly classified into two categories: independent and interdependent self-construal. Independent self-construal emphasizes autonomy, uniqueness, assertiveness and independence from others, whereas interdependent self-construal emphasizes belonging, fitting in, conformity, connectedness and harmony with others. This study examines how Chinese accounting students in two distinctive learning and cultural environments, Australia and China, are likely to differ in their self-construal, and how these differences may influence their sceptical judgments. Final year undergraduate accounting students have been selected as proxies for entry-level auditors because they have not been socialised and influenced by organizational cultures of audit firms. The results show that Chinese students undertaking university accounting education in Australia scored higher on measures of independent and lower on measures of…

Thesis by publication.

Bibliography: pages 180-194.

Chapter 1. Introduction  – Chapter 2. LIterature overview  – Chapter 3. Paper 1 - Assurance of natural resource management  – Chapter 4. Paper 2 - The multidisciplinary audit team : diversity challenges for non-financial insurance assurance  – Chapter 6. Paper 3 - Audit reporting on non-financial information : one audit, tow reports  – Chapter 6. Summary and conclusions  – Consolidated reference list  – Appendices.

The thesis is set within the context of growing adoption of independent assurance of nonfinancial information (NFI) by organisations, with the specific subject matter focus on assurance of natural resource management (NRM). The Australian Government has invested significant resources in NRM programs. For example, in the state of New South Wales, a region covering over 800,628 square kilometres, Government funding totalled $1,042 million during the period from 2004 to 2010. This significant investment coincided with the establishment of a statutory organisation in 2003, the primary responsibility of which was to provide independent assurance in relation to whether ongoing investment achieved improvements in the condition of natural resources across the regions.

This thesis responds to the calls for research (e.g., Adams et al., 2014; O’Dwyer et al.,2011; Power, 2003) into assurance practices within NFI contexts by exploring various aspects of the development and implementation of assurance processes and practices emerging within organisations. The thesis is by publication format and comprises three inter-related but distinct papers, each framed around the key elements of assurance practice, utilising a longitudinal (six year) case study with data collection from multiple sources.

The first paper, titled “Assurance of Natural Resource Management”, sets the scene and explores the challenges of the case study organisation in developing an audit framework to guide its legislated NRM audits at a time when NFI assurance standards on specific subject matter were limited and more tailored to the private sector. The findings suggest the development of such guidance is complex and acknowledge a lack of consensus as to the ‘best practice’ in NRM and NFI assurance. The findings also challenge assumptions that accepted assurance concepts developed for the financial audit context, such as audit scope, assurance levels and materiality, are transportable to non-financial assurance and our public sector case context.

The second paper titled “The Multidisciplinary Audit Team: Diversity Challenges for NFI Assurance” draws upon resource diversity theory from social psychology and Power’s (2003) theoretical perspectives on emerging non-financial audit practices to examine multidisciplinary audit teams (MATs) in practice. The study explores how the MAT’s composition and diverse member subject matter knowledge and various aspects of team dynamics shape assurance processes (e.g., gathering and assessing audit evidence) in practice. The findings suggest that…

Thesis by publication.

Bibliography: pages 196-224.

Chapter 1. Introduction to the thesis  – Chapter 2. The use of social network sites and psychological well-being : a systematic review  – Chapter 3. Effects of Internet-based interventions on the psychological well-being of cancer-affected people : a systematic literature review  – Chapter 4. The influence of health-specific social network site use on the psychological well-being of cancer-affected people  – Chapter 5. The effect of social network site use on the psychological well-being of cancer-affected people  – Chapter 6. Conclusion.

Social Network Sites (SNSs) allow users to create online profiles and content, establish connections, share content, develop interactions with their connections and consume content provided by their network. The rapid growth in the number of users of SNSs makes it important to examine their impact on users and their potential to improve psychological well-being. A major limitation of most previous studies was that they relied on healthy students as participants. Little research attention has been paid to the ability of SNSs to promote the psychological well-being of other cohorts of SNS users.

People affected by cancer are using SNSs such as Facebook for informational and emotional exchange with people with the same health concern. This research examined the impact of SNSs use on the psychological well-being of the users of the Ovarian Cancer Australia (OCA) Facebook. Using a mixed-methods approach, this research sought to answer the question: In what ways and to what extent does SNS use impact the psychological well-being of cancer-affected people?

Semi-structured interviews with users of the OCA Facebook were used to assess how and in what ways SNSs use impacts the psychological well-being of cancer-affected people. A theoretical model was proposed to develop a better understanding of the relationship. Analysis of data collected through a subsequent quantitative survey confirmed the theoretical model and empirically revealed the extent to which SNSs use impacts the psychological well-being of cancer-affected people. Analysis showed that the use of OCA Facebook enhances social support, improves the experience of social connectedness, develops social presence and learning – and ultimately, improves psychological well-being. This study contributes to a better understanding of the ways that SNSs use is associated with psychological well-being among cancer-affected people. Our theoretical model improves understanding of the factors that mediate the positive impact of Facebook use on the psychological well-being of cancer-affected people.

1 online resource (xv 246 pages)

Theoretical thesis.

Bibliography: pages 203-233.

Chapter 1. Introduction  – Chapter 2. Fair value in the accounting literature  – Chapter 3. Interpretive framework  – Chapter 4. Research method  – Chapter 5. Fair value accounting and the Enron post-mortem  – Chapter 6. Global Financial Crisis and after  – Chapter 7. Assessment of actor-networks  – Chapter 8. Conclusions.

Using actor-network theory, this thesis charts the translation of fair value accounting (FVA) technology. Although FVA has been discredited for over-inflating profits and thereby leading to the 1929 economic collapse, academics of the 1960s resurrected it as a potential complete science of financial reporting. Regulators of the 1990s then reintroduced FVA into both US and International Financial Reporting Standards in an attempt to combat reporting malfeasance by the financial industry. This reintroduction was performed in a piecemeal manner. In the 1990s FVA was manipulated by the financial industry it was supposed to regulate. After the crash of Enron Corporation in 2001, standard setters realized that FVA had to be toughened. The result was a neo-liberal and puritan version of FVA that emphasized 'mark-to-market' accounting; but this swiftly became a supposed cause of the global financial crisis of 2008-9. After a fierce trial of strength with the financial industry, standard setters and regulators were forced into reinstating a weaker and more malleable version of FVA that liberally permitted 'mark-to-model' accounting, a model that persists to the present day.

The thesis explores the forces that have enabled FVA to be translated so that it serves the financial industry and other interests simultaneously. The thesis concludes that the FVA network itself is now a single actor capable of translation.

1 online resource (233 pages)

Theoretical thesis.

Chapter 1. Introduction  – Chapter 2. A critique of Gray's framework on accounting values using Germany as a case study  – Chapter 3. Adoption of IFRS in Germany : a neo-institutional analysis  – Chapter 4. The influence of power and legitimacy on German attitudes towards the IASB and the promotion of professional judgements  – Chapter 5. The influence of uncertainty avoidance on accountants' materiality judgements : a cross-cultural study of German and Italian accountants  – Chapter 6. Conclusions.

This thesis provides a holistic examination of convergence with the adoption of International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) in Germany by taking into account the influence of political, legal, economic, social, cultural and historical factors on accounting principles and practices. Specifically, this study examines issues in the convergence process that may create constraints in achieving global comparability and importantly may challenge the International Accounting Standards Board’s (IASB) main objective, namely, ‘to develop, in the public interest, a single set of high quality, understandable, enforceable and globally accepted financial reporting standards based on clearly articulated principles’ (IFRS Foundation 2011a, Preface to IFRS). In contrast to a significant number of prior research that has largely focused on quantifiable and narrowly focused theoretical approaches, this thesis provides a holistic examination with an emphasis on multi-disciplinary perspectives. The contextual analysis contributes to international accounting research by providing deeper and sharper insights into the convergence process as well as potential challenges and constraints to future development of IFRS and the IASB. Specifically, the findings show that international politics and power structures have an increasing influence on Germany’s national accounting developments often without adequate consideration of normative evaluations by German stakeholders, which may result in challenges to future development and acceptance of IFRS in Germany. Moreover, the findings provide evidence of specific concerns regarding the political nature of the IASB, the technical superiority of IFRS and the extensive use of professional judgements in IFRS. These concerns are further substantiated by evidence that professional accountants from Germany and Italy show systematic differences in their exercise of professional judgment, which raises concerns about the potential to achieve the IASB’s main objective of international comparability of financial reporting. Accounting researchers, practitioners, educators and accounting standard setters are likely benefit from these insights that show the importance of contextual factors in the convergence process. Indeed, the findings contribute to international accounting research and practice by emphasising that convergence is a complex social and political process that requires researchers to critically examine contextual environments of countries rather than simply focus on…

Theoretical thesis.

Bibliography: pages 360-407.

1. Introduction  – 2. The context of Fijian tourism SMEs  – 3. Literature review and theoretical framework  – 4. Research methodology  – 5. Case study analysis  – 6. Survey data results and analysis  – 7. Discussion  – 8. Contributions, limitations and areas for future research.

This research examined how performance measurement systems (PMSs) are used by Fijian small and medium enterprises (SMEs) in the tourism industry, specifically in the accommodation sub-sector. The study has three main research objectives: 1) to determine the influence of a number of factors (environmental uncertainty, ownership (by ethnicity), size and strategy) on the use of PMSs by Fijian SME tourism firms; 2) to examine how Fijian small and medium enterprise (SME) tourism firms use PMSs; and 3) to investigate the influence of the use of PMSs on four organisational capabilities (i.e. teaming of resources, organisational routines, entrepreneurship and innovativeness) and overall organisational performance. A new comprehensive theoretical framework was developed for this study, by drawing on three existing frameworks and/or theories, namely contingency theory, Simons’ levers of control (LOC) framework and resource-based theory (RBT).

This study adopted a mixed-methods approach using semi-structured interviews and online and postal surveys. Interview data was analysed using NVivo (version 10), whilst survey data was analysed using Structural Equation Modeling with Partial Least Squares (PLS) method. The results showed that the four contextual factors examined (perceived environmental uncertainty, ownership (by ethnicity), size and strategy), all influenced the use of PMSs, diagnostically and interactively and either directly or indirectly. This study found that the use of PMSs had influenced organisational performance indirectly, by way of organisational capabilities, namely the teaming of resources and planning and control routines.

This research contributes to the advancement of the management accounting literature on PMSs in SME tourism ventures, in a developing nation context, using a novel theoretical framework. Practically, this research provides SMEs with an enhanced understanding of the circumstances in which different uses of PMSs are appropriate, to support effective business management. The study’s findings also have implications for policy-makers related to SME development and growth in the tourism industry.

1 online resource (xx, 407 pages)

Theoretical thesis.

Bibliography: pages 208-223.

1. Introduction  – 2. Paper 1. A conceptual framework for budgetary reform within public sector organisations  – 3. Paper 2. The transformation of Indonesia's central government budgetary system  – 4. Paper 3. The implementation of performance-based budgeting within Indonesian local government  – 5. Conclusion.

Performance-Based Budgeting (PBB) has been, and continues to be, implemented within developed and developing countries as part of a wider public sector reform process. The purpose is to embed accurate performance measurement within public sector organisations (see Franklin, 2006, Aristovnik and Seljak, 2009, Schick, 2007) and provide a more efficient and effective approach to resource allocation (Shah and Shen, 2007). PBB adoption and implementation has not been without criticism and there is ongoing debate as to the real use and effectiveness of PBB. The historical context within which PBB developed, and the justification for why countries decide to implement PBB, has been the subject of scant research, which has led to a lack of understanding as to its purpose and effects.

This thesis undertook an historical examination of PBB as part of fiscal reform within the public sector. It specifically used a case study regarding the adoption and implementation of PBB within the Indonesian government as its central field of analysis. The study used qualitative research methodology, beginning with a historical review of the evolution of PBB as the new public budgeting system, using the Lüder FMR model (2002) as a conceptual framework. It then utilized new institutional sociology (NIS) theory as a theoretical framework to examine the extent to which isomorphism was evident during PBB implementation within the Indonesian central government. Finally, the Lüder FMR model (2013) was employed as a conceptual framework to investigate the motives that underpinned the development of PBB within Indonesian local government, and the factors influencing its implementation.

This study offers three conclusions about the historical context of PBB evolution and the decision by countries to adopt. First, PBB was initially implemented in the United States in 1949 and expanded to developing countries through United States (US) and United Nations (UN) funded projects. Using the Lüder FMR model (2002), this study finds that the primary motive underpinning PBB implementation in the US was public sector demand for more informative and measured budgets. Similar motives were also found in the UK, Australia and Denmark. That the implementation of PBB within the US and UK budgeting systems were largely seen as positive, was the primary stimulus for PBB implementation across the globe. Furthermore, this study found the outcome of budgetary reform varied between countries, from that of a single format that involved traditional budgeting methods, to ‘old PBB’, to a dynamic approach involving multiple stages that culminated in PBB modification.

Second, the change to the budgetary…

Thesis by publication.

1. Introduction  – 2. Literature review  – 3. Data collection and analysis  – 4. Paper one  – 5. Paper two  – 6. Paper three  – 7. Conclusion.

The thesis examines the environmental management practices of Australian manufacturing organisations with emphasis placed on the effectiveness of such practices and the role of organisational factors and the use of environmental performance measures in enhancing such effectiveness. The study also examines the effect of the adoption of environmental management systems on environmental performance. Data were collected by mail survey questionnaire from a random sample of senior financial officers in Australian manufacturing organisations.

The thesis adopts the ‘thesis by publication’ format and consists of three research papers. Paper One examines the association between five specific organisational factors with the effectiveness of environmental management. Paper Two examines the association between the extent to which environmental performance measures (EPMs) are used and the purpose of using EPMs with the effectiveness of environmental management.

The first two papers examine the effectiveness of environmental management from two perspectives, environmental performance and the effectiveness of environmental management processes. The results of both papers highlight the significance of the effectiveness of environmental management processes as an antecedent of environmental performance and a mediator of the association between the examined factors and environmental performance. Specifically, in Paper One, top management support, training and the link of performance to rewards exhibit a direct positive association with the effectiveness of environmental management processes and an indirect association with environmental performance, while teamwork exhibits a direct positive association with environmental performance. In Paper Two, using operational EPMs to a greater extent and using EPMs for environmental decision making purposes exhibit a direct positive association with the effectiveness of environmental management processes and an indirect association with environmental performance.

Paper Three examines the effect of the adoption of environmental management systems (EMSs) on environmental performance. The results show that organisations that have an EMS achieve higher environmental performance than organisations that do not have an EMS. However, organisations that have an ISO 14001 certified EMS did not achieve higher environmental performance than organisations with a non-certified EMS. The results also reveal five specific environmental management initiatives that contribute to enhanced environmental performance.

The thesis contributes to the environmental management literature by empirically examining the contingency factors that influence the effectiveness of environmental management. The findings provide managers with an insight into the need to apply specific organisational factors, use operational EPMs to a greater…

Thesis by publication.

Bibliography: pages 248-290.

Chapter 1. Introduction  – Chapter 2. Managing transport emissions through taxes and tradable permits - a comparative analysis evaluating the mechanisms in Australia's carbon pollution reduction scheme  – Chapter 3. Mandating emission targets can significantly reduce road transport emission in Australia  – Chapter 4. Reforming vehicle taxes on new car purchases can reduce road transport emissions - ex post evidence  – Chapter 5. Will cars go green in the ACT? A case study of the reformed vehicle stamp duty  – Chapter 6. What now for environmental sustainability? Government fails to link Australian car FBT concessions to vehicle emissions  – Chapter 7. Conclusion.

The transport sector is the third largest and second fastest growing source of greenhouse-gas (GHG) emissions in Australia. Unless the Australian government and consumers reverses this trend, CO2 emissions will continue to rise and offset any gains made in reducing carbon emissions in other sectors. Further, ignoring the problem of carbon emissions from the transport sector will jeopardise Australia’s efforts to meet its current and future international obligations to reduce the nation’s GHG emissions, and will place a greater burden on other sectors to make greater cuts in emissions.

The Australian government has no regulatory or economic instruments, or any ambitious targets to encourage a transition to lower carbon vehicles. While other countries in the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) have set and legislated ambitious targets to reduce road-transport emissions, the Australian government is projecting future growth in emissions from this sector. This growth is due to the unrestricted importation of high-emitting vehicles, significant growth in consumers’ preference for high-emitting SUVs, and a slow decline in consumers purchasing light and small vehicles.

The challenge for Australia is to reduce emissions from the road-transport sector, which is almost entirely dependent on fossil fuels. To reduce road-transport emissions will require the introduction of strong economic instruments and complementary instruments to encourage behavioural change in consumers so that they choose more fuel-efficient lower carbon emitting vehicles.

This thesis examines individual policy instruments and combinations of policy instruments that are required to encourage behavioural change in consumer car-purchasing trends to lower the average carbon emissions from new passenger and light commercial vehicles (new light vehicles) in Australia. This thesis considers the effectiveness of economic-policy instruments that include a carbon price on the cost of fuel under an emissions-trading scheme and carbon tax ; reforming fiscal taxes into fiscal environmental taxes; and using command and control regulatory instruments.

1 online resource (xiii, 290 pages) tables

Thesis by publication.

Bibliography: pages 179-195.

Chapter 1. Introduction  – Chapter 2. Independent directors, ownership concentration and firm performance in listed companies : evidence from Vietnam  – Chapter 3. Roles of and challenges for independent directors in transition economies : evidence from Vietnam  – Chapter 4. Impact of cultural difference between the north and the south of Vietnam on creating accountability of independent directors  – Chapter 5. Conclusion  – References  – Appendices.

Vietnam is a transition economy in the Southeast Asia and corporate governance in this country has been newly established after transition process in 1986. Similar to many other developing and emerging economies, Vietnam has weak external governance mechanisms, thus independent director becomes a critical element in corporate governance system as an internal governance mechanism. Further, Vietnam is also a transition economy which has a highly concentrated ownership structure with the dominance of the State as the largest controlling shareholder which may complicate the work of independent directors. Therefore, it is unclear how independent directors contributes to corporate governance and firm performance in a transition economy as Vietnam. Vietnam only releases a new Corporate Governance Code in 2012 which for the first time introduces the notion of independent directors in corporate governance with the requirement that listed companies need to maintain a certain level of independent directors on the board. There is lack of research to examine the function of independent directors in corporate governance in this country. Taking into account the importance as well as the recent adoption of independent director in corporate governance in Vietnam – a transition economy, the thesis examines this type of director from three aspects in three research papers.

The first paper (chapter 2) examines the relationship between independent directors and firm performance using available archival data. Due to the nature of transition process, independent directors have been recently adopted in corporate governance system in Vietnam, thus contribution of independent directors to improving firm performance is still unclear. After using several methods to control for endogeneity - a common issue for research on corporate governance, we found that the relationship between independent directors and firm performance is negative. The findings also revealed that the negative relationship between independent directors and firm performance can be due to the dominance of firms with concentrated ownership structure. In addition, the negative relationship is even worse in firms where the State is a controlling shareholder than in firms with private controlling shareholders.

Then, in the second paper (chapter 3), the thesis uses surveys to further investigate the perceptions of independent directors in listed companies in Vietnam on the roles, responsibilities and challenges for them when participating on the board of directors.…

"Submitted to Macquarie University Faculty of Business and Economics Department of Accounting and Corporate Governance for Doctor of Philosophy in accounting"  – title page.

1. Introduction  – 2. Reporting for SMEs in Australia: issues arising from commentators in a standard setting process  – 3. Reporting for SMEs in Australia: the gap between standard setters and practitioners  – 4. Adjudicating public and private interests in lobbying for the Australian reduced disclosure requirements standard  – 5. Discussion and conclusions.

In July 2010, the Australian Accounting Standards Board (AASB) released an Australia-specific differential reporting standard known as the Reduced Disclosure Requirements (RDR) standard. The RDR is based on the measurement and recognition principles of the International Accounting Standards Board’s (IASB’s) International Financial Reporting Standard (IFRS) with reduced disclosure and is targeted at non-publicly accountable reporting entities. In selecting this choice for Australian use, the AASB completed a very short consultation period following on from the release of the International Financial Reporting Standard for Small and Medium-sized Entities (IFRS for SMEs). The haste with which the standard was introduced was contentious, as was the decision of the AASB not to adopt IFRS for SMEs. The AASB also did not implement the full proposed change outlined in their Consultation Paper, which they had hoped would incorporate the removal of the reporting entity concept as it is applied in Australia.

This thesis is set within the context of the development of the RDR standard. Included are three papers examining aspects of the standard setting process within this context. First, a synthesis of the issues facing the AASB and preparers of financial statements, the nature of participation in lobbying and the identity of users of the financial statements of non-publicly accountable entities are extracted from the comment letters in response to the AASB’s Invitation to Comment 12 (ITC 12). Second, the results of a survey of Australian accounting practitioners highlight the reporting practices of Australian entities. In addition, the awareness of members of the stakeholder community of the solutions offered by the AASB during the consultation period for the RDR is reported. These findings provide insight into the gaps between standard setters and other stakeholders. Finally, the motives of stakeholders for participation and non-participation in the development of the standard are established using a survey. These survey findings are supplemented by interviews with key stakeholders, to question the method by which the standard setter determines and preserves the public interest. Having examined the standard setting process, this thesis concludes that the processes designed for standard setting for listed entities may need adaptation when seeking input from stakeholders of non-publicly accountable entities or SMEs.

1 online resource (xiv, 305 pages)

Thesis by publication.

Chapter One: Introduction  – Chapter Two: Literature review  – Chapter Three: Paper One  – Chapter Four: Paper Two  – Chapter Five: Paper Three  – Chapter Six: Conclusion.

Globalisation, advances in technologies, and the impact of liberalisation have led to significant increases in competition, and resulted in enhanced use of Quality Management (QM) practices in order to remain competitive. Accordingly, this thesis examines the adoption and effectiveness of QM practices in the context of a developing economy. Specifically, the thesis examines the contingency factors,including institutional pressures and organisational related factors that affect the adoption of QM, including Total Quality Management (TQM). This thesis also examines the association between specific organisational factors and the effectiveness of QM practices, assessed in respect to competitive advantage, and the mediating role of Kaynak's (2003) core TQM practices and quality performance in this relationship. Data was collected through interviews with 16 managers of a garment organisation in Bangladesh and a survey of 673 managers in Bangladeshi garment organisations.

1 online resource (xiv, 201 pages)

Thesis by publication.

Chapter One. Introduction  – Chapter Two. Literature review  – Chapter Three. Paper one  – Chapter Four. Paper Two  – Chapter Five. Paper three  – Chapter Six. Conclusion.

The thesis examines the effectiveness of Performance Management Systems (PMSs), examining the influence of specific antecedents on PMS effectiveness and the subsequent impact on employee work-related attitudes (job satisfaction and Employee Organisational Commitment). Data was collected through a survey questionnaire of 190 senior level managers from Australian financial and legal service organisations.

The thesis employs the “thesis by publication” format and comprises three academic papers. Paper One examines the effectiveness of PMSs in respect to the achievement of organisational process outcomes (performance-related and staff-related) and the subsequent impact on job satisfaction and Employee Organisational Commitment (EOC). The results indicate a positive association between PMS effectiveness with both job satisfaction and EOC. Specifically, the performance-related outcomes were found to be associated with both job satisfaction and EOC, while the staff-related outcomes were associated with job satisfaction. Further analysis revealed that a PMS which motivates performance and assists in the development of individual’s skills and knowledge (performance-related outcomes) to a greater extent contributes to greater job satisfaction. The results also indicate that job satisfaction can be enhanced when the PMS rewards talented staff and manages poor performing staff to a greater extent, while EOC can be enhanced when the PMS effectively motivates performance, assists in the achievement of goals and provides an accurate assessment of business performance. Thus the study highlights the importance of the effective functioning of PMS processes due to their influence on individual work-related attitudes.

Paper Two examines the influence of the use of multidimensional performance measures on the characteristics of the PMS and the subsequent impact on PMS effectiveness. The findings indicate that the use of multidimensional performance measures exhibits a negative association with the subjectivity of performance evaluations, and a positive association with the link of performance to non-financial rewards and the focus on short-term targets. Furthermore, the results reveal that three PMS characteristics (the link to financial and non-financial rewards and the short-term focus of targets) and employee empowerment exhibit a significant positive association with PMS effectiveness, whilst subjectivity in performance evaluations exhibited a significant negative association with PMS effectiveness. These findings highlight the importance of objective approaches to performance evaluation, rewards systems which link performance to non-financial rewards and the emphasis on the achievement of short-term targets as mediators of the association between the use of multidimensional performance measures with PMS effectiveness. The…

Empirical thesis.

Bibliography: pages 178-201.

This purpose of this thesis is to provide an empirical assessment of the implementation of IAS 41, Agriculture, in the agricultural sector in Australia, in the context of longstanding concerns over the use of fair value accounting for biological assets. Three areas of concern are examined in three papers: first, whether fair value accounting adopted under IAS 41 provides decision-useful information; second, whether the discretion provided in IAS 41 leads to opportunistic behaviour by management; and third, whether executive compensation contracts and corporate governance attributes are effective to constrain opportunistic behaviour.

IAS 41 requires biological assets to be measured at fair value so that the transformation of biological assets through growth is presented in the financial statements in a timely manner, and thus provides information to investors for decision-making. The first paper of this thesis (in Chapter Two) evaluates the decision-usefulness of the information provided under fair value accounting in the Australian agricultural sector by examining the forecasting power of fair value of biological assets for future operating cash flows. The results find that fair value of biological assets contains limited useful information about future operating cash flows. Market-determined prices are not superior to managerial estimates in relation to providing useful information for decision-making.

The fair value measurements prescribed in the standard require considerable use of management discretion. Thus, one of the main concerns about the use of fair value accounting for biological assets is the reliability of the information. The second paper of this thesis (in Chapter Three) examines whether managers use the discretion provided in IAS 41 opportunistically. The results indicate that managers in the Australian agricultural sector have used the discretion allowed in IAS 41 to manage their earning sin a manner consistent with meeting or beating target earnings. This problem mainly exists when managerial estimates are applied. The results also show that firms use a wide range of discount rates to achieve their various desired goals.

The inclusion of unrealised agriculture gains in the income statement as part of reported earnings raises the question about whether executive compensation contracts and corporate governance are effective in monitoring the reliability of fair value information. The third paper of this thesis (in Chapter Four) examines the pay-sensitivity of executive compensation to agriculture gains as well as the role of corporate governance in monitoring the opportunistic behaviour allowed by the discretion provided in IAS 41.The findings show that executive bonus is not related to unrealised agriculture gains, consistent with boards of directors reviewing the earnings and rewarding executives for realised earnings only. The results also show that unrealised gains are smaller and less associated with pre-agriculture earnings when…

Bibliography: p. 207-226.

Overview of the thesis  – Literature review  – Research design  – Accounting and corporate governance environment within the banking industry in Sri Lanka  – Role of accounting in corporate governance in the banking industry in Sri Lanka  – Summary and conclusions.

The purpose of this study is to examine how accounting could contribute to the corporate governance of banks in a developing country. Accounting and corporate governance failures of banks have figured prominently in discussions of the possible causes leading to the Asian financial crisis in the late 1990s and the recent global financial crisis. These discussions suggest that accounting has failed to play its potential role in corporate governance of the failed organizations.  – To achieve the above purpose, this study has the following five objectives: (a) to conduct a comprehensive literature review in order to explore the ways in which accounting could facilitate corporate governance of banks; (b) to analyse the actual role that accounting plays in the corporate governance of banks; (c) to explain the contextual relativity of the role of accounting in corporate governance of banks; (d) to examine the differences in the role of accounting in the corporate governance of public and private sector banks; and (e) to make recommendations for enhancing the role of accounting in corporate governance in the banking industry.  – Following the qualitative research approach, this study adopts the case study research method to achieve the aim of the study. Two major banks in Sri Lanka were selected as the case organizations representing the public and the private sectors. Data collection and analysis were guided by the analytical framework developed in this study. Data were gathered primarily by semi-structured interviews and also by documentary evidence. Data analysis was undertaken using three interactive processes, namely data reduction, data display, and conclusion drawing and verification.  – The findings of the study suggest that although accounting has a potential role in the corporate governance of banks, in reality that role is influenced to a large extent by various contextual factors, such as the level of effectiveness of the enforcement mechanisms for laws and regulations, and, in the case of public sector bank in particular, the multiple roles played by the government and political interference. Further, this study finds a number of differences between the roles played by accounting in corporate governance in the public and the private sector banks.

xi, 226 p. ill

"May 2011"

Bibliography: p. 226-254.

1. Overview of the thesis  – 2. Coercive policy diffusion in a developing country: the case of public-private partnerships in Sri Lanka  – 3. Management controls in public private partnerships: an analytical framework  – 4. Management controls for minimising risk in public-private partnerships in a developing country: evidence from Sri Lanka  – 5. Summary and conclusion.

Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) have increasingly been recognised as a key strategic policy for delivering public infrastructure services in developing countries. PPPs as an important part of the effort of the governments in developing countries are also expected to reduce the burdens on their budgets and excessive debt. With proper management controls, a PPP could further generate efficiency, effectiveness, innovations, and achieve value for money objective in the delivery of public services. However, the progress of PPPs in developing countries has been slow, often failing to achieve value for money objective. In many occasions, PPPs in these countries were either held up or terminated before proceeding to the physical development stage. The aim of this thesis is to examine the use of management control systems by public partners to minimise risk associated with PPPs with special reference to Sri Lanka. The thesis adopts ?thesis by publication? format and includes three research papers with specific objectives. The study finds that public partners use control archetypes, namely market, bureaucratic and clan, with control strategies, namely performance evaluation and trust, to minimise relational risk and performance risk in different combinations in different phases of PPPs. The study also reveals that while five contingent factors suggested by transaction cost economic theory are highly relevant in the context of PPPs in Sri Lanka, the institutional environment and the power differential also influence public partners? choice between various control archetypes. Further, the thesis provides evidence suggesting that the PPP policy innovated in industrialised countries was diffused into Sri Lanka with coercion from international aid organisations (IAOs) through the conditionality attached to financial assistance. The findings of the study contribute to literatures on PPPs, public policy, and new public management in general and management control in particular. The findings also have implications for governments in developing countries, IAOs, managers in both public sector and private sector organisations.

xiv, 254 p. ill

Bibliography: p. 273-293.

Introduction  – Methodology  – Was the enactment of the CGT regime actuated by a perception that it will satisfy the policy objective of horizontal equity?  – Is the perception that the CGT regime will satisfy the policy objective of horizontal equity a perception that is largely correct?  – What reasons could (in theory) cause the CGT regime to produce outcomes that fail to satisfy horizontal equity?  – What reasons in practice cause the CGT regime to produce outcomes that violate horizontal equity?  – Is there reasons to expect outcomes that violate horizontal equity (caused by the CGT regime) to be widespread?  – Overall conclusions, policy implications of them, and delimitations of the research.

The research problem addressed in this thesis is: Does the Australian regime of income tax on capital gains cause widespread violation of horizontal equity? The conclusion drawn in this thesis is that there is reason to expect that the Australian regime of income tax on capital gains ("the CGT regime") can cause widespread violation of horizontal equity. That conclusion is reached by seeking answers to five questions: Question 1. Was the enactment of the CGT regime, and the continuance of it after enactment, actuated by a perception (of respectively the government which enacted it, and subsequent governments which yielded to its continuance) that the regime will satisfy the policy objective of horizontal equity?, and, if it was, Question 2. Is that perception largely correct?, and, if it is, Question 3. What reasons could (in theory) cause the CGT regime to produce outcomes that fail to satisfy horizontal equity (that is, outcomes that violate horizontal equity)?, and, if such reasons exist, Question 4. Do those reasons (or any other) in practice cause the CGT regime to produce outcomes that violate horizontal equity?, and, if they do, Question 5. Is there reason to expect those outcomes to be widespread?  – This thesis argues that only any one of four reasons can (in theory) cause the CGT regime to potentially produce outcomes that violate horizontal equity. Those four reasons (designated as respectively Reason A, Reason B, Reason C and Reason D) are: Reason A. The best interpretation (pursuant to the current approach of the Australian judiciary) of relevant legislative provisions can result in outcomes that violate horizontal equity. Reason B. Though the best interpretation (pursuant to the current approach of the Australian judiciary) of relevant legislative provisions does not result in outcomes that violate horizontal equity, the Australian judiciary's interpretation of those legislative provisions, not being compatible with the best interpretation of those legislative provisions (pursuant to the current approach of the Australian judiciary), can result in outcomes that violate horizontal equity. Reason C. Though the best interpretation (pursuant to the current approach of the Australian judiciary) of relevant legislative provisions does not result in outcomes that violate horizontal…

Theoretical thesis.

Bibliography: pages 220-238.

Chapter One. Introduction : emissions trading schemes and the problem of taxation  – Chapter Two. Accounting for carbon emission allowances  – Chapter Three. Domestic taxation of emissions trading transactions  – Chapter Four. International taxation of emissions trading transactions  – Chapter Five. Conclusions.

The economic arguments in support of the use of emissions trading schemes as a mechanism to reduce harmful greenhouse gas emissions rely on the ability of the schemes to internalise the cost of the pollution externality through a price signal – the cost of an emission permit. Taxation has the potential to distort this price signal if emissions trading transactions are not subject to the same tax treatment across entities but, to date, the issue of the application of taxation regimes to such transactions has received little academic consideration. The prospect of inconsistent tax treatment is heightened where emissions trading systems are linked internationally, allowing permits to flow between jurisdictions. This thesis systematically examines the direct (income) taxation of carbon trading transactions in order to determine instances in practice where inconsistent tax outcomes may arise and makes recommendations for tax law design.

The thesis builds up a picture of emissions trading taxation through three layers. The first is the treatment of relevant transactions for financial accounting purposes. This is necessary given that many jurisdictions take accounting profits as the starting point in determining tax liability. The second element is domestic taxation and involves a detailed, comparative analysis of the domestic tax treatment of emissions trading transactions in Australia and the United Kingdom. These jurisdictions are amenable to comparison given that the United Kingdom is representative of jurisdictions that apply ordinary tax rules to these transactions, whereas Australia has adopted specifically designed tax rules to address the unusual features of the transactions. The third element is international taxation, where this necessarily involves the application of both international tax rules found in domestic law and tax treaties. These rules are applied to six hypothetical trading transactions which could arise under linked trading schemes in order to systematically test the outcomes against the goal of inter-firm neutrality. For these purposes, the representative tax systems are again based on the Australia and United Kingdom models and the tax treaty network is assumed to be based on the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Model Tax Convention on Income and on Capital.

1 online resource (238 pages)

Theoretical thesis.

Bibliography: pages 215-232.

Chapter 1. Overview of the thesis  – Chapter 2. Issues in the adoption of international financial reporting standards (IFRS) for small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs)  – Chapter 3. Confirmation bias in the reporting judgments of accountants when applying international financial reporting standards (IFRS) for small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs)  – Chapter 4. The impact of the reduced guidance in international financial reporting standards (IFRS) for small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) on the reporting judgments of accountants  – Chapter 5. User perceptions of the decision usefulness of financiaL statements prepared in compliance with international financial reporting standards (IFRS) for small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs)  – Chapter 6. Summary and conclusions.

The International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) has pursued a strong agenda to develop a simplified set of International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) for small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). IFRS for SMEs published in 2009 was derived from full IFRS with significantly reduced recognition and measurement principles, guidance and disclosure requirements in order to satisfy the accounting information needs of the users of SME financial statements.

The aim of this thesis is to undertake a comprehensive examination of the conceptual and practical issues in the convergence of IFRS for SMEs and suggest possible ways to address these issues. In particular, the thesis undertakes the following four research projects under the theme of problems and challenges in implementing IFRS for SMEs: (1) critically reviews IFRS for SMEs, including the development and implementation process of the standards; (2) examines whether accountants are able to distinguish between the recognition and measurement principles of full IFRS and IFRS for SMEs when they exercise professional judgment; (3) investigates the impact of the reduced guidance in IFRS for SMEs on the professional judgment of accountants; and (4) investigates whether users of SME financial statements benefit from a simplified set of IFRS for SMEs.

This thesis employs exploratory and empirical research methods to examine the controversial issues in the adoption of IFRS for SMEs. The findings of this thesis provide evidence that IFRS for SMEs have been a challenge for non-publicly accountable entities to adopt and there are several conceptual and practical issues with IFRS for SMEs. In particular, the thesis provides evidence that accountants are unable to choose accounting treatments that best reflect the economic substance of a transaction when the recognition and measurement requirements are different across full IFRS and IFRS for SMEs and when guidance is significantly reduced from IFRS for SMEs. This thesis also provides evidence that users perceive disclosure of IFRS for SMEs to be decision useful but they do not regard that the simplification significantly enhances their decision making.

1 online resource…

Theoretical thesis.

Bibliography: pages 246-261.

Chapter 1. Introduction  – Chapter 2. The nature of environmental taxes  – Chapter 3. Implementing environmental policies through pricing mechanism in developing countries  – Chapter 4. Environmental taxes in Indonesia : a normative review on respective laws and regulations  – Chapter 5. The role of environmental taxes in improving environmental outcomes : a case study in the special province of Yogyakarta  – Chapter 6. Conclusion.

In recent years, developed countries as well as developing countries have resorted to the use of environmental taxes to manage pollution. However, the actual design of environmental taxes differs among countries due to different underlying rationales and experiences. Indonesia as a developing country, has also experimented with these taxes since 1997 to address some of the challenges of environmental degradation that it has been grappling with. In spite of this, the coverage of environmental tax legislations and the actual contribution of environmental taxes in practice still remain unclear. This study critically evaluates these issues with a view to exploring possible ways for developing a comprehensive framework of such taxes to manage pollution from industries in Indonesia. The reduction of pollution from industrial activities would likely contribute to environmental sustainability. The significance of the study lies in the fact that the coverage of environmental tax laws in Indonesia and the role of environmental taxes in practice have not been examined by other scholars. This thesis uses a mixed method approach to conduct the analysis. The approaches are based on the normative and empirical methods. It therefore relies on analysing data from primary and secondary documents as well as data from interviews and survey questionnaires with relevant stakeholders. This thesis consists of six chapters. Chapter 1 is the introductory chapter and identifies the gaps in the literature and poses questions that inform the research undertaken in this thesis. It also sets out an outline of the relevant chapters. Chapters 2 and 3 provide the knowledge context for the analysis by discussing the nature and use of pricing instruments in managing environmental degradation. Findings from the analysis are discussed in Chapters 4 and 5. The final chapter is Chapter 6 and it provides a summary of findings as well as propositions of the framework for sustainability in Indonesia.

1 online resource (xi, 261 pages) colour map

Thesis by publication.

Chapter 1. Introduction  – Chapter 2. Literature review  – Chapter 3. Research design  – Chapter 4. Paper One  – Chapter 5. Paper Two  – Chapter 6. Paper Three  – Chapter 7. Conclusion.

This thesis examines the use of sustainability control systems in proactive strategic responses to institutional and resource-based view sustainability determinants. Despite the increasing importance of proactive strategic responses to sustainability determinants as a way of effectively addressing sustainability challenges and gaining competitive advantage, the literature is relatively silent about whether, how, and to what extent organisations’ use of sustainability control systems support proactive strategic responses to institutional and resource-based sustainability determinants. More specifically, this thesis seeks to examine the use of sustainability control systems in proactive strategic responses to sustainability determinants in terms of (i) strategic responses to institutional pressures for sustainability, (ii) translating proactive sustainability strategies into corporate sustainability performance, and (iii) implementing sustainability dynamic capabilities as a means of achieving sustainable competitive advantage. This thesis follows the ‘thesis by publication’ format, which consists of three interconnected empirical research papers: a case study-based paper, and two survey-based papers.

The case study (Paper one) explores the use of sustainability control systems in strategically responding to institutional pressures for sustainability. Drawing on institutional theory (DiMaggio and Powell, 1983) and strategic responses to institutional pressures typology (Oliver, 1991), the study argues that organisations strategically respond to institutional pressures for sustainability using sustainability control systems. Data were collected by interviewing sustainability managers of a large-scale multinational apparel manufacturing organisation with its headquarters in Sri Lanka. The study finds that organisations actively respond to institutional pressures for sustainability using acquiescence, compromise, avoidance, defiance, and manipulation strategies. The results not only reveal that sustainability control systems (i.e. sustainability budgeting, sustainability key performance indicators, sustainability life-cycle assessment) play an important role in complying with institutional pressures for sustainability, but also in more proactive strategic responses, including compromise, avoidance, defiance, and manipulation.

The two survey-based studies examine the use of sustainability control systems in proactive strategic responses to resource-based sustainability determinants. Theoretically, these two studies are based on the natural-resource-based view of the firm (Hart, 1995), dynamic capabilities (Teece et al., 1997), and levers of control framework (Simons, 1995). Data were collected from top managers in 175 multinational and local organisations operating in Sri Lanka, and analysed using…

Bibliography: pages 297-319.

Introduction  – Part I. Hong Kong mentality  – 1. Colonial factors  – 2. China factors  – 3. Other factors  – 4. Defining the Hong Kong mentality  – Part II. Period of low demand  – 5. Demand initiated only by the local government  – 6. Lack of demand and lack of presence  – Part III. Period of growth of demand  – 7. Emergence and growth of demand in the general public  – 8. Growth of Japanese presence and pragmatic motivations  – Part IV. Period of expansion of demand  – 9. New developments in Japanese studies  – 10. Weakened insecurity and secured Japanese presence  – Conclusion

This thesis examines how the Hong Kong mentality has affected the development of Japanese studies in Hong Kong. It first defines the Hong Kong mentality as "insecure" "flexible" and "pragmatic" and analyses the background against which these characteristics developed. It places an emphasis on the unique history of Hong Kong, colonized by the British, once occupied by the Japanese, and finally reunified with China.  – The development of Japanese studies in three different periods is analysed according to the demand for Japanese studies. The Period of Low Demand characterizes Japanese studies from the establishment of colonial Hong Kong until the 1950s, with particular attention to the sense of insecurity Hong Kong people lived under, and the weak Japanese presence in Hong Kong society. The Period of Growth of Demand examines the rapid growth of Japanese studies from the 1960s to the 1980s and discovers that it was due both to a strengthened Japanese presence and pragmatic motivations driving the growth. Finally, the Period of Expansion of Demand describes the current expansion of Japanese studies into new areas. It is analysed that the expansion came about because of new factors such as the penetration of Japanese popular culture into Hong Kong, reduced insecurity, and the introduction of a new education system.

1 online resource (319 pages) illustrations

Theoretical thesis.

Chapter 1. Introduction  – Chapter 2. A study of the emergence of the Kuwaiti Association of Accountants and Auditors  – Chapter 3. Social change and the emergence of the accounting profession in a high-income oil-exporting country : the case of Kuwait, 1973-1985  – Chapter 4. Closure and the evolution of Kuwait's accounting profession in the 1980s  – Chapter 5. Conclusion.

The aim of this historical study is to explore the emergence and development of the accounting profession and professionalization project in Kuwait. Therefore, filling a gap in the literature by presenting a case of an Arabic former British protectorate country (De Beelde, 2011). This aim will enable situating the case of Kuwait among the cross-­nation studies, thus adding to the called for diversity of historical accounting professionalization studies (Chua & Poullaos, 1993, 1998; Freidson, 1994; Walker, 2004). The case of the emergence and development of the Kuwaiti Association for Accountants and Auditors (KAAA) is utilized. Drawing from the theoretical framework of the sociology of the professions, with a focus on the socio-economic environment in which it emerged and state-profession axis. The study is constructed following thesis by publication format. Accordingly sub-aims has been contracted to fulfil the overall aim of the study as follows: 1. First paper, aims to explore the influence of the British Empire on the formation of KAAA in 1973. For which, it deploys the enabling factors identified by Poullaos & Sian (2010) in professionalization projects in former British colonies to explore whether these factors were present in Kuwait as an Arabic British protectorate. 2. Second paper covered the period from 1973 to 1985. The aim is to identify how changes in the socio-economic environment influenced the professionalization project in Kuwait. Using social change theory as an explanatory framework. 3. The final paper looks into the post formation period leading to the enactment of new Practice Law no. 5 in 1985. In this study the aim is to explore the challenges and strategies deployed by the KAAA in its attempt peruse closure, and how these strategies are applied within the contexts of conflict, and state-profession axis. The thesis employs two methods of data collection. The primary data are obtained following oral history method, through semi-structured interviews with pioneer and foreign accountants, some of KAAA founding members, and state representatives. The secondary data are obtained by conducting archival research.

1 online resource (viii,216 pages) diagrams, tables